Ethnographic Interests of Xenophon Essay - 1295 Words

Xenophon, the son of Athenian wealthy family, was exiled because of his assistance for the enemies of Athenians. He claimed that he was yearning for a thrilling adventure; as a result, he decided to join Cyrus’s expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, the Persian King along with the Greek mercenaries. Though Anabasis is more about the record of the Greeks’’ struggle and hardship during their retreat in the hostile territory, Xenophon writes Anabasis as his interest of ethnography. Ethnography is a study of human cultures. It aims to describe the origin, the behavior, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans. Xenophon has recorded the Greeks and the local customs of the friendly and hostile forces such as dance, food,†¦show more content†¦Xenophon analyzed each of the generals’ behavior as a commander. Not like Cyrus who is the best commander he had ever met, Xenophon has identified the good and flaws of the five generals. Th e Greek general, Clearchus was a good commander because of his devotion to warfare and his restriction on an army’s discipline; however, his sternness and his unaffectionate feelings caused many of his men deserted him. Proxenus of Boeotia had a good quality of praising his men when they did well, but not to those who did wrong, and yet he failed to arouse his soldiers with respect or fear since they regarded him as easy to manipulate. Lastly, Meno of Thessaly was the worst example of all generals because he would achieve his goals with perjury, lies and deceit. Xenophon had focused primarily on the qualities as a leader. Interestingly, he studied them very well that he seems to establish a standard for what leadership ought to be. After Xenophon elected to be one of the generals of the Greek armies, he later took advantages from these guidelines that he discovered and successfully aided them through the countless battles and hardships. For example, One thing he learned fro m Clearchus that â€Å"discipline makes for survival and lack of discipline has often in the past been responsible for loss of life† (Xenophon 60). Also, Xenophon demonstrates the importance of bravery after

Good Versus Evil, Justice Versus Tyranny - 1909 Words

Good versus evil, justice versus injustice, liberty versus tyranny-- in battles such as these, determining who is who is not always easy. In the United States, social, economic, and political differences between the North and the South became increasingly apparent in the early 1800s. Slavery was an invidious discussion at the time, as both sides of the argument fully believed that they were right. The North believed it to be wrong and immoral, while the South believed the opposite. This, along with other highly disputatious issues, led the Union to disunion, and its eventual Civil War. Even though slavery was a sensitive and an anger inducing argument for both Northerners and Southerners already, many events over the course of the 1800s made it more so. In 1856, Senator Charles Sumner, a Massachusetts anti-slavery Republican, gave a speech to the Senate regarding whether Kansas should be admitted to the Union as one that allows slavery, or one that bans and illegalizes it entirely. Sumner took an anti-slavery stance, and ridiculed Stephen Douglas and Andrew Butler, both of whom were senators of Southern states and had pro-slavery views. Representative Preston Brooks was Butler s South Carolina kinsman, so Brooks, who also was a pro-slavery Southerner, had taken Sumner’s virulent speech personally. Brooks traveled to meet with Sumner to address his viewpoint on the speech. Preston, standing before Sumner’s desk, spoke to Sumner, but before Sumner could conjure a response,Show MoreRelatedThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration Essay934 Words   |  4 Pa gesother measures. Although African Americans want to believe that the Clintons have their back, should the same results be expected? 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The Middle East Conflict Free Essays

The Middle East Conflict Will Israel Ever be Able to Exist in Peace? The Middle East Conflict Will Israel Ever be Able to Exist in Peace? From the day Israel declared itself an independent nation, neighboring countries and terrorists has routinely attacked it. The history of Israel and the conflict between the Jewish state and its Arab neighbors is long and complex. To begin to understand the root of the violence, one must first know the history of the creation of the state of Israel. We will write a custom essay sample on The Middle East Conflict or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some of the major questions that have to be asked to understand the conflict and whether or not there can truly be peace include the following: 1. How was Israel created 2. What has caused the tension in the Middle East 3. What role does the International community play on the Middle East conflict How Was Israel Created After the First World War, the defeated Ottoman Empire was divided amongst Britain, France, and Italy. The British mandate included Transjordan and Palestine, though this was the first time the name Palestine had ever been used. Britain’s main role was to implement the Balfour Declaration, which stated the â€Å"Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object† (Hurewitz, 1979, p. 101 – 106). The Arabs were originally given 80 percent of the British Mandate, now known as Jordan. During World War II, Britain refused to allow European Jews, who were attempting to escape the Nazis, entry into the British Mandate. Instead, they were either sent to the African nation of Mauritius or sent to detention camps (Lenk, 1991, p. 2). Even, after World War II, Britain wanted to severely restrict the flow of Jewish immigrants from Europe to Palestine. Finally, Britain announced their desire to end their mandate of the territory by May 1948 and they turned the problems regarding the division of the land to the United Nations. The United Nations came up with several plans. The one that was voted on and passed 33 to 13 was UN Resolution 181, which divided the remaining portion of the British Mandate into two independent states with Jerusalem falling under International control (United Nations, 1947, p. 132 – 133). The UN resolution gave the half of the remaining 20 percent of the original mandate to the Arabs. Israel declared itself an independent state on the 14th. It was immediately recognized by the United State, the Soviet Union, and many other nations. However, the Arab world refused to recognize Israel and over the next several days Arab forces from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded Israel (Anti Defamation League, 1999). Israel defeated all of the invading countries and starting with Egypt in February 1949, they all began to sign armistice agreements with Israel. Israel gained an additional 8 percent of the original mandate after the war. The Gaza strip went to Egypt and the West Bank to Transjordan. The United Nations Conciliation Commission estimated there were approximately 711000 Palestine refugees as a result of the 1948 War (1950). However, Jordan was the only Arab country who would accept them and allow the to travel outside of UN refugee camps (Bard, 2008). What Has Led To The Current Tensions? After the initial 1948-49 War, many Arabs in Israel choose to try and leave the country and flee to other surrounding Arab nations. However, since Jordan was the only country willing to accept them as citizens, major resentment built up towards the Jews. Again, in 1967 Egypt and Jordan invaded Israel in another attempt to wipe Israel of the map. This war lead to the annexation of the West Bank, the Gaza strip and the Suez Canal into the hands of the Jewish state resulting in even more Palestinian refugees. Once more, resentment continued to build against Israel. The irony of the situation is the Palestinians have had land and they have had opportunities for their own country, yet the Arabs in the region were not content with the land they already had and continued the violence towards Israel creating the refugee problem. As more and more Palestinians are displaced, the blame is put on Israel for not doing enough to help out the Palestinians and help them make permanent homes. Yet, at the same time no other Arab nation will take the time to help the Palestinians. Instead they use them in an effort to obtain their own goal of a complete annihilation of the Jewish State. Iran, for example, helps to fund and support Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, both of which are terrorist organizations. This outside influence adds more to the already tense situation in Israel. Another factor that has led to the hostilities was the creation of a Jewish state in a predominately Muslim region of the world. The Muslims see Israel and Jerusalem, the third holiest Muslim city, as belonging to them. On the other hand the Jewish people biblically have the same believe about Israel and Jerusalem belonging to them. Both groups were given the legal permission via international law that provided both groups with land in the area. While the Israelis were content with the land they were given, the Palestinians were not, thus, the start of the 1948-49 war. When the other Arab nations attacked Israel, they violated international law and started a war of aggression. Since they were defeated, International law says all land captured from the aggressive armies is to remain in the hands of the country that was attacked. The Palestinians saw this as though Israel were stealing their homeland. However, by refusing to accept the UN’s partition plan, they gave up any right they had to the land. Though the rhetoric that these Palestinian areas are being occupied illegally by Israel helps to fuel the violence between the two groups. What is the International Community’s Role be in Trying to Ensure Peace in the Region? The United Nations was directly responsible for the creation of the state of Israel, as was noted earlier. Therefore it is partly the responsibility of the UN to help ensure peace. The problem right now is violence is not condemned on both sides of the conflict. When a Palestinian terrorist walked into a Jerusalem seminary and 8 rabbinical students, the United Nations could not pass a condemnation of the attack (Heilprin, 2008, March 7). Yet, at the same time, the United Nations condemned Israel for their use of force to try and stop the groups of Hamas terrorist firing rockets that are targeted at Israel civilians. The United Nations actions of condemning Israel for their use of superior force to defend itself against those targeting Israel civilians, while at the same time refusing to condemn terrorist attacks targeted at civilians, merely emboldens the terrorists. The radical Palestinians who commit these terrorist acts see this lack of condemnation from the UN as a free pass to continue their targeting of civilians. Israel’s only logical response is to fight back, thus causing the violence to continue with at a cessation in site. Then again with an increase in world wide Anti-Semitism over the last few decades, it has ecome unpopular, in the world, to support the Jewish state. Why should the World Care? While the United Nations has shown weakness on the issue of supporting Israel as they continue to fight terrorist in an effort to protect its civilians, the question should be asked if there really is a need to support Israel and protect them from being completely eradicated. The first thing to consider is displacement. If the country of Israel were to ever fall to the Arab world and it become a Muslim nation again, where would the Jews go? You would first have the immediate influx of Jewish refugees would be most likely forced from their homes. Additionally, what happens if another Holocaust happens in which one group is attempting to eradicate the Jewish people? Where would these Jews go to be guaranteed an escape from this persecution? The next big issue as to whether or not Israel is worth saving is the question of what has Israel done for the world so far? Good News from Israel gives plenty of examples of how Israel has contributed to the world. Here are just a few. Motorola’s research and development facility in Israel developed the cell phone. Both the Intel Pentium microprocessor and Pentium MMX Chip were designed in Israel. The AOL Instant Messenger ICQ was developed in Israel. Israeli doctors are making major medical breakthroughs including finding was to stop cancer in its tracks. Israel has the third most companies listed with the NASDAQ, behind Canada and the United States. These are just a few of the contributions that Israel has made to the world (http://www. newsoftheday. com/). All these and more have been accomplished while continuously engaged in war and being the target of terrorist. The question should be how could the International Community afford not to play a role in establishing peace in the Middle East while not removing Israel from the map? What can be Done To Achieve Peace? Unfortunately, it seems as though the only way there will ever be peace in the Middle East is for a devastating and complete loss for one of the sides. The sad reality is peace talks and cease-fires do not work. The only way to truly achieve an end to a conflict is for an enemy to be dealt a crushing blow or a complete annihilation. The biggest problem is Fatah and other organizations that are part of the mainstream Palestinian lifestyle have called for the destruction of Israel (Ratzlav-Katz, 2007, November 20). They refuse to stop their fight against Israel until the country of Israel no longer exists. These leaves Israel with the option of defending itself and acting aggressively to prevent more civilians from being targeted by Palestinian terrorists. Perhaps ones all the terrorists have been eliminated, the two sides will be able to sit down and reach an agreement that will result in a lasting peace. In order for peace to fully exist, though, after the terrorist have been removed from the equation, Israel’s neighbors are going to have to recognize it as a legitimate country with a right to exist. Perhaps once these two conditions exist, there can be a true heading towards peace. References Anti Defamation League. (1999). Israeli War for Independence. Retrieved March 3, 2008, from http://www. adl. org/ISRAEL/Record/48war. asp Heilprin, J. (2008, March 7). Libya Blocks UN from Condemning Violence. Yahoo News. Retrieved March 7, 2008, from http://news. yahoo. com/s/ap/20080307/ap_on_re_af/un_mideast_violence Hurewitz, J. C. (Ed. ). (1979). The Middle fast and North Africa in World politics: a Documentary Record, vol. 2. New Haven: Yale University Press. Lenk, Karl. (1991). The Mauritius Affair, The Boat People of 1940/1941. London. Ratzlav-Katz, N. (2007, November 20). American Jewry: Fatah Charter Calls to ‘Eradicate’ Israel. Arutz Sheva. Retrieved March 9, 2008, from: http://www. israelnationalnews. com/News/News. aspx/124315 United Nations. (1947). Resolution 181. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from http://daccessdds. un. org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/038/88/IMG/NR003888. pdf? OpenElement United Nations Conciliation Commission. (1950, October 23). Genera l Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Covering the Period from 11 December 1949 to 23 October 1950. Retrieved March 9, 2008, from http://domino. un. org/unispal. nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/93037e3b939746de8525610200567883! OpenDocument How to cite The Middle East Conflict, Papers The Middle East Conflict Free Essays string(37) " of a peace process was constructed\." The purpose of this research paper will be to assess and analyze specific principles and theories of negotiation and conflict management as reflected by a specific story of the Middle East peace process within the named article. The article is entitled â€Å"The Wounds Of Peace,† by Connie Bruck. This, of course, is one individual author’s perspective, yet, nevertheless, it is the view of this author that much of the content is historically factual and accurate, with a definite sense of individual perspectives as purported by the author. We will write a custom essay sample on The Middle East Conflict or any similar topic only for you Order Now To the greatest extent, this author shall attempted to meet those requirements as per the related principles and theories of negotiation and conflict management. Similarly, this will take place within the context of the Middle East peace process, guided within a specific time and place. To a large extent, this author should also like to state that his perspectives will emanate from those theories and principles which are rooted within negotiation and conflict management. Probably, no where else on this Earth (with the possible exception of Northern Ireland) are the principles and theories of negotiation and conflict management more contentious than those that exist within the Middle East To begin with, this author should like to offer some brief background as to the content of â€Å"The Wounds Of Peace† prior to my assessment. â€Å"The Wounds Of Peace† is a label which the author has applied to attempts of leaders of various countries throughout the Middle East to come to terms and create, or forge a partnership. To this extent, the author cites a process that began in Oslo, and, as the author states â€Å"One that compelled fiercely reluctant men on both sides to forge some of the most unlikely and creative partnerships in the history of diplomacy. † (Bruck, p. 4) The chief players throughout this scenario include Benjamin Netanyahu, Yasir Arafat, Shimon Peres, as well as others. The author begins with a discussion of a visit with Shimon Peres, who had been succeeded by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Peres had expressed serious trepidation regarding his successor and his ability to handle the complex diplomatic aspects relating to the various strategies and tactics regarding the peace process and conflict management. To a large extent, it must be stated that the players, the respective geographical areas, and the positions they hold amongst each other(s) are highly complex. In fact, it is virtually impossible to define the role as well as its multidimensional ramifications in terms of diplomacy, and the many principles and theories of negotiation and conflict management as is the case. Based upon the article by the New Yorker, there exists clear sympathies or empathies for certain players, specifically, Peres and Rabin; whereas Arafat is portrayed as a somewhat ignominious character, who extends his hand for the purported purpose of establishing peaceful relationships, but one is not led to fully believe this, based upon the illustration as portrayed within the New Yorker. In one section of the article, the question is asked — â€Å"Is Israel alone? â€Å"(Bruck, p. 3) Within this section, the author alludes to Peres’ wanton destruction of his country’s security by consorting with Israel’s purported enemy. The question which crosses my mind is whether or not peace is salvageable, if solvable as well. R. Bolton states that conflict is unavoidable, and to be human is to experience conflict. (Bolton, p. 25)He maintains that there exists specific benefits of conflict, as well, and categorizes these into both realistic as well as non-realistic conflict. Furthermore, he adds that social scientists have discovered that love only endures when dissension is faced openly. In an excerpt from his book â€Å"Love And Conflict,† sociologist Gibson Winter writes â€Å"Most families today need more honest conflict and less suppression of feeling†¦ here are obviously proper times and occasions for conflicts. No one benefits from the random expression of hostile feelings. There are, however, occasions when these need to emerge†¦ we cannot find personal intimacy without conflict†¦ love and conflict are inseparable. † (Bolton, p. 45) This reminds me of Mr. Peres’ observation that â€Å"Deep in my own thinking, I felt we could not remain a Jewish people without a moral code. I thought that being Jewish, the real meaning is to give preference to the moral consideration. If we don’t do it†¦ beauty, you have in Paris, more, wine, music. The only thing that give Jewish history its wine and perfume is really the moral consideration. † (Bruck, p. 3). The larger players involved must be cognizant of the many vagaries as relates to negotiation and conflict management. It is not enough to be a politician, and a master at diplomacy, but a human being and someone who can read others well. This also applies to situations, and as Mr. Peres points out, this is steeped within Jewish history. A dispute begins when one person or organization makes a claim or demand on another who rejects it. The claim may arise when a perceived injury or from a need or aspiration. (Boulding, p. 12) When the miner complains to the shift boss about the stolen boots, he was making a claim that the company should take responsibility and remedy his perceived injury. The shift boss’ rejection of the claim turned it into a dispute. To resolve a dispute means to turn opposed positions — the claim and its rejection — into a single outcome. The resolution of the boots dispute might have been a negotiated agreement, an arbitrator’s ruling, or a decision by the miner to drop his claim or by the company to grant it. The author makes numerous points that interests, rights, and power are three basic elements of any dispute. In resolving a dispute, the parties may choose to focus their attention on one or more of these basic factors. At the same time, peace in theMiddle East is a complicated affair, as indicated at the outset of this research paper, and some success was made several years ago in Oslo wherein the rudiments of a peace process was constructed. You read "The Middle East Conflict" in category "Essay examples" Shimon Peres points out that his fear is that Prime Minister Netanyahu will not understand and will not do the right thing. He acknowledges that the government is still in the world of rhetoric — yet, making compromises is an unpleasant thing, and it must be done if peace is to survive. At least this is the sense that I received clearly from the words of Mr. Peres. He further criticizes Prime Minster Netanyahu for some of his actions, including appearing at a rally on a podium draped with a banner that read, â€Å"Death To Arafat! † This of course, runs contrary to every conceivable and viable principle and theory of negotiation and conflict management — particularly as exists throughout the Middle East. Much has been written regarding those principles and techniques surrounding conflict management. This has evidenced it self both on a domestic level as well as an international one, and within C. Kennedy’s â€Å"Managing Public Disputes,† which is published as a â€Å"Practical Guide To Handling Conflict And Reaching Agreements† the author acknowledges that disputes over public issues comes in all sizes and shapes. They are caught between communities and their decisions makers, between factions in government, between organizations, and between organizations and the people. Few people enjoy dealing with conflicts and public disputes exhibit specific characteristics. (Kennedy, p. 11) There may also be a complicated network of interests (as is the case throughout the Middle East), and new parties may emerge. Similarly, a variety of decision making procedures may be utilized for the purpose of establishing negotiation and conflict management. The author further states that conflict is dynamic. Unmanaged conflicts seldom stay constant for long. Simple solutions that might have worked in the beginning may be ineffective and even cause more damage if they are attempted when the conflict is fully developed. For example, restoring communication between warring factions will simply make matters worse if the wrong people do the talking or if the parties no longer trust each other. (Kennedy p. 47) In the case of the many players throughout the Middle East, the United States has served, to a large extent, as arbitrator. Similarly, one can go back to the Administration of one President Jimmy Carter, who managed to negotiate, as a third party or arbitrator, a peace process amongst both Presidents Anwar Sadat and Prime Minster Begin. (Ben-Dor, p. 78)Nevertheless, the negotiator faces many tedious obstacles which are not always overcomeable. For example, values and tension throughout the Middle East consistently impede both the abilities and efforts of the many players immediately involved to apply the principles and techniques of conflict management for the purpose of total peace throughout all of the Middle East. The fact of the matter is that the geopolitical structure as well as many factions are highly fragmented throughout the Middle East. (McKinley, p. 23) Even Yasir Arafat cannot speak for all of the so-called enemies of the Jewish people, as with him, and the same with Mr. Peres, any move towards compromise is seen as being a traitor. In fact, Peres as well as Rabin (Israel Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin) was referred to as one for chancing the move of compromise towards a final settlement of total peace throughout the Middle East. Both of these images of negotiation are incomplete and inadequate. Value creating and value claiming are linked parts of negotiation. Both processes are present. No matter how much creative problem solving enlarges the pie, it must still be divided; value that has been created must be claimed. And if the pie is not enlarged, there will be less to divide; there’s more value to be claimed if one has helped create it first. Sebenius, p. 33) An essential tension in negotiation exists between cooperative moves to create value and competitive moves to claim it. (Sebenius, p. 35) In my opinion, there exists an onus amongst all parties involved to bring with them to the table a sense of negotiable element or value. The value that the negotiator brings with him for the benefit of the advisory must not be misleading and beneficial for all. This is the negotiators’ dilemma, and one may envision a paradigm wherein the value may extent from one end of the continuum, possibly identifiable as anything from good to great to terrible to mediocre. Sebenius, p. 40) Nevertheless, the prospects for both implementing as well as establishing the principles and theories of negotiation and conflict management are incomplete absent the aforementioned. Throughout â€Å"The Wounds Of Peace,† and the contents therein, it appears that Mr. Peres’ attitude towards his successor may well indeed have validity. The negotiating of power requires a number of important elements beginning with its very definition. From there, one may identify various categories of power as well as their legitimacy and commitments which relies heavily upon the power of knowledge. As one author states, there is a subtle but significant difference between communicating a warning of the course of action that I believe will be in my interest to take should we fail to reach agreement, and locking myself into precise terms that we must accept in order to avoid my taking that course of action. (Woodhouse, p. 20) Extending a warning is not the same as making a negative commitment. If the United States honestly believes that deploying 100 MX Missiles is a vital part of its national security, then letting the Soviet Union know that in the absence of a negotiated settlement we intend to deploy them would appear to be a sound way to exerting influence. In these circumstances, the United States remains open to considering any negotiative agreement that would be better for us than the MX deployment. We are not trying to influence the Soviet Union by committing ourselves to refuse to accepting an agreement that would in fact be in our interest (in hopes of getting one even more favorable to us). We are simply trying to influence them with the objective reality that deployment seems to be our best option in the absence of government. (Fisher, p. 56) Throughout this research paper, I would not attempt to address all of the intricacies of the many players, their titles, names, interests, ad infinitum, but I should like to highlight some of the more salient elements which I believe are particularly relevant to the theories and principles as related to conflict management. As Bruck has stated in her New Yorker article, â€Å"difficult as achieving the Gaza-Jericho accords had been, the challenge they posed was dwarfed by that of Oslo II. In Gaza, there were about a dozen Jewish settlements, so the withdrawal of Israel troops from the Palestinian – populated areas there had been relatively straightforward. In the West Bank, the settlements were numerous — about 140 — and had been strategically dispersed. Peres, employing one his favor aphorisms, said, â€Å"You can make an omelet from eggs, but you cannot make eggs from an omelet, and, fortunately, that area -the West Bank- has been thoroughly omeletted. (Bruck, p. 9) The players involved in the Middle East peace accord must be exclusively cognizant of the various strategies and tactics as related to the conflict management, in addition to all their other moral, political, cultural, social, geographical and allying responsibilities. A closely related proposition is that the political concept manager should seek to dispel the â€Å"worst case† fears that many contestants in a competitive policy debate will consciously or unconsciously bring to the bargaining table. (Fisher, p. 72) This is perhaps an obvious but still significant proposition. The offer further states that as far as possible the leader of the conflict management process should require parties to the policy debate to express their arguments in ordinary language, or, in more difficult cases, to translate technical language into terms that are understandable to non specialists. Being here is straightforward. First, it is possible to have a competitive debate if different parties cannot understand what other contestants are talking about. Anyone who has experienced a discourse between military people and foreign policy analysts or between financial analysts and production people would be immediately familiar with the tendency of these and other specialists to talk past each other. The results of such an untranslated discourse is a Tower of Babel. (Yates, pp. 131-131) It is inevitably the objective of the negotiator to arrive at an agreement, and in my opinion, communication is key. Similarly, how to make the best of one’s assets is the subject of scrutiny by Fisher and Ury. They state that protecting yourself against a bad agreement is one thing. Making the most of the assets you have in order to produce a good agreement is another. (Fisher, p. 52) The many facets involved within the problem and the people are far too numerous to delineate within this writing. Nevertheless, the authors do at one point address peace in the Middle East when they allude to the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty blocked out at Camp David in 1978, demonstrating the usefulness of looking behind positions. Israel had occupied the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula since the 6 Day War of 1967. (McKinley, p. 198) When Egypt and Israel sat together in 1978 to negotiate a peace, their positions were incompatible. Israel insisted on keeping some of the Sinai. Egypt, on the other hand, insisted that every inch of the Sinai be returned to Egyptian sovereignty. Time and again, people drew maps showing possible boundary lines that would divide the Sinai between Egypt and Israel. Compromising in this way was wholly unacceptable to Egypt. To go back to the situation as it was in 1967 was equally unacceptable to Israel. The focus on interest instead of positions is all important. One useful rule of thumb is to give positive support to the human beings on the other side that is equal in strength to the vigor which may emphasize the problem. This combination of support and attack may seem inconsistent. Psychologically it is, the inconsistency helps make it work. A well known theory of psychology, the theory of cognitive dissonance, holds that people dislike inconsistency and will act to eliminate it. (Fisher, p. 5) Most of what the negotiators had designed in both Gaza-Jericho and Oslo was to be put into effect by the military and security forces of the two sides. And, particularly in Oslo II, where the populations involved were so interlaced, where the agreements’ map looked (as Abu Alaha said with distaste) â€Å"Like a tiger skin,†(Bruck, p. 10) extensive cooperation between the two was mandated. The situation was highly problematic — as volatile, one might expect, between the two security forces as between the two populations whose security they were trying to protect, as stated within the New Yorker article. One might ask how in the did they ever reach accord?! Much the same way, I believe, that they did at Camp David. Both leaders were willing to expose their vulnerabilities for the sake of peace. As a result, Mr. Sadat was assassinated, as was the case with Yitzhak Rabin. The complexities as well as the sensitivities which pervade the varied principles and theories of negotiation and conflict management, are, as indicated at the outset of this research paper, arguably the most complex on the planet. How to cite The Middle East Conflict, Essay examples

Public Health Coastal Development and Planned Retreat

Question: Discuss about the Case Study for Public Health of Coastal Development and Planned Retreat. Answer: Importance of the vulnerability assessment Vulnerability is an elusive concept. Definition of vulnerability varies across disciplines, ranging from the environment to economics to psychology. In this current century, vulnerability has become a significant concept for guiding the evaluation, design, and targets of a program (Moret, 2014). Assessment of vulnerability of health is most important in the zone of disaster management, hazardous substance controlling and ecology especially climate change issues. Vulnerability assessment is also vital from social perspectives related to both hazards and economic vulnerability (Fuchs et al., 2011). Vulnerability assessment allows health departments to understand the places and community that are more susceptible to health impacts associated with climate change and related exposures altered by climate change. The assessment of vulnerability of places and people can be used to implement more targeted public health actions to mitigate adverse effects of climate change on people (Moret, 20 14). In recent years the notion of resilience has been highlighted very intensely in the language of the development of a community, referring to the ability of a particular community to cope with external disturbances and stresses as a result of political, social or environmental changes. Where vulnerability is concentrated on risk factors, resilience is concerned with handling of identified issues. The blend of predictable alterations in climate change-related exposures such as temperature increase, sea-level rise, precipitation etc. will consequence in intensification of prevailing health jeopardizes and the introduction of new risk factors with an elevated degree of spatial vulnerability (Haimes, 2015). Thus, vulnerability assessment of health is vital for its proper management. Description of the selected community Melanesia has consisted of 2000 islands and is home to more than 12 million people. Melanesia is a sub-part of Oceania located in the west of Pacific Ocean. Melanesian geography contains Fiji,the Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Vanuatu,New Caledonia, Torres Strait Islands and Papua New Guinea (Taylor and Kumar 2016). The Solomon Islands consisted of about 1000 islands which are located on east side of Papua New Guinea. The Bismarck Archipelago is considered as a part of Papua New Guinea and consisted of 200 islands, mostly volcanic in nature. Vanuatu is an archipelago which is located in the east of Australia and has 83 islands. Fiji has 110 inhabited islands and 522 small islets. Vanua Levu and Viti Levuare the two major islands of Fiji. New Caledonia has consisted of several small islands. Nearly 274 small islands exist in the Torres Strait Islands. These are a part of Queensland and a state of Australia. In the north of Australia, there located the second largest island of the world, New Guinea. The eastern portion of the island forms the mainland of the independent land of Papua New Guinea (Taylor Kumar, 2016). The indigenous inhabitants of Melanesia are Negroid people and Austronesian people came into contact with the pre-existing Papuan-speaking population about 4000 years ago. Maximum Melanesians belong to the Christian church, the value contingent upon the established church of the expatriate influence. However, many communities combined their Christian belief with the pre-Christian ethnic indigenous practices. Dense tropical forest actually permitted ethnic groups to stay reserved from one another. This stemmed in a much larger assortment of languages and cultures (Lawson, 2013). English has become the main medium of communication in Fiji and spoken by ethnic Fijians. French is the official language of New Caledonia, however, about twenty-seven indigenous languages belong to the sub-branch of Austronesian language coexist. There are 3 official languages for Papua New Guinea and over seven-hundred indigenous Papuan dialects or non-Austronesian and Austronesian languages as well. In West ern New Guinea, more than three hundred dialects with two hundred other tongues coexist. Seventy languages are spoken in the Solomon Islands. English is the official language but only two percent Solomon people speak English. Solomons Pijin is the prevalent language. Vanuatu has 3 official languages: French, English, and Bislama, while more than one hundred local dialects are spoken in Vanuatu (Blust, 2013). Sustenance is the chief feature of the Melanesian economies. Papua New Guinea is highly gifted with natural assets but proper exploitation has been hindered by harsh topography, lack of modern infrastructures, strict law, and regulation complications. Agronomy delivers a survival occupation for eighty-five percent of the total population. Mineral resources like copper, gold, and petroleum made up seventy-two percent of export incomes. The economy of Western New Guinea is less developed. The indigenous community survives by means of fishing, hunting, and cultivation of crops. Fiji is gifted with minerals, fish, and forest resources. Fiji has one of the most established economies among other Melanesian islands (Ward, 2013).New Caledoniahas about twenty-five percent ofnickel resources of the world. Only a minor proportion of the land is apt for agriculture and food products made up around twenty percent of imports. Tourism is also an important part of the economy. TheSolomon Islandsis a less economically developed land. More than seventy-five percent of Solomon Islandspopulation is involved in fishing and farming for living. Fishing provides the main economic support in theTorres Strait Islands along with subsistence horticulture. Pearlfarming is a key foundation of income for the Maluku island of Aru. Theeconomy of Vanuatu is centered on small-scale farming, which delivers the survival source for sixty-five percent of the populace. Tourism, offshore financial services and fishing and are additional supports (Ward, 2013). The climate of the Melanesian islands is tropical year-round. There is a warmer, more humid phase from November to April, and a chiller, drier period from May to October. The islands closer to the equator such as Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu are usually hotter than those situated in further south like Fiji, New Caledonia, Tonga, Cook Islands. High rainfalls occur in month of January and June is the driest month. On average, July is the coolest month in Melanesia. Numbers of tropical cyclones are high in these islands (McColl, 2014). Potential environmental changes By the completion of the decade 2031-2040, Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian Provinces of Papua and West Papua are estimated to experience total average land surface temperature rise of 0.5C to 1C from current time (Viles Spencer, 2014). Precipitation is likely to change slightly towards the northern coasts while increasing by ten percent to twenty percent all over the rest of the landmass. The external islands of PNG are predicted to have parallel temperature surges, with precipitation also estimated to upturn by ten percent to twenty percent. Cloud cover is not estimated to change a lot from the existing average during this period. The ocean ranges around the islands are expected to experience rise in the average sea-surface temperatures in between 0.5C to 1C by the conclusion of this decade (Taylor and Kumar 2016). The number of degree heat weeks per year is estimated to be between zero and five. Ocean acidification will start to impact regions all over New Guinea. Aragonite sa turation levels will decrease to underneath three, signifying that corals may experience difficulties making the calcium carbonate they require to form their skeletons. Vanuatu islands are also estimated to suffer same fate as PNG due to land and sea surface temperature rise, rainfall modifications and ocean acidification (Friedrich, 2012). By the conclusion of 2031-40 span, New Caledonia is estimated to observe average land surface temperature rise between 0.5C and 1C from present-day (Viles Spencer, 2014). Rainfall is projected to change little throughout the area, around ten percent. The ocean zones around New Caledonia are likely to see a rise in the average sea-surface temperature of between 0.5C and 1C (Viles Spencer, 2014). The figure of degree heat weeks per year is estimated to be between zero and five, and rainfall is projected to remain similar to the present yearly averages. The northern parts of Fiji will experience similar changes like New Caledonia. To the south of the main landmasses of Fiji, rainfall is expected to escalate from present by ten percent to twenty percent. Ocean acidification will be minimum in this region and aragonite saturation points are estimated to persist above three. Sea surface temperature is increasing rapidly near the equator and slowly in the upper latitudes. In the marine en vironment, temperature increase is about 0.1C. This higher temperature has emerged from the surface to a deepness of about 2300 feet (Taylor and Kumar 2016). Findings of the International Pacific Research Centre shown that sea surface-level in the north side of Melanesia have been increasing faster than the mean worldwide sea surface-level surge and prophecies are that sea-level will remain to grow more rapidly than the world-wide average, with an estimated increase of between 0.18 meter and 0.59 meter by the conclusion of this decade (Barros et al., 2014). Modifications in the El Nio and La Nia cycles can give rise to frequent tropical cyclones with increased intensity (Kingsford et al., 2011). Direct and indirect health impacts of climate change The direct biophysical impact of temperature rise is injuries and death caused due to the increased intensity of El Nio condition which is often responsible for increased precipitation and stronger cyclones. Indirect biophysical impacts due to extreme events like tropical cyclones, warmer and wetter climates are infectious and vector-borne diseases, making the indigenous population of Melanesia more susceptible (McMichael, 2013). The direct biophysical impact of warming ocean is the destruction of coral reefs and disappearance of reef fishes. Where fishing is one of the main means of living, extinction of important fish species can have distressing effects on the local population (Bell et al., 2011). The indirect impact of warmer ocean is that ocean becoming a suitable place for toxic algal blooms due to modification of coral reef ecosystem. These toxic blooms infect shellfishes which threaten the health condition of the Melanesian people who depend on shellfish for protein (IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, 2016). Changed rainfall conditions directly hamper agricultural activities and food production of Melanesian indigenous population. An indirect impact of high precipitation and flooding is penetration of coastline saltwater into the freshwater system and scarcity of drinking water (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Sea level rise has direct negative impacts associated with land loss. Land loss causes destruction of properties and also has negative impacts on mangrove ecosystem which gives shoreline protection and increases vulnerabilities of indigenous people such as indigenous people of Crab Bay in Vanuatu, who are highly dependent on mangrove resources for their income and food security (Ellison, 2015). Water stress is an indirect impact of sea-level rise which can cause serious health issues. This can be caused by effects of saline water intrusion into subsurface freshwater levels due to sea-level increase (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Climate change also negatively impacts on service and infrastructure environment on Melanesia. The impacts of extreme events like high rainfall, flood, and tropical cyclones are damage of transport facilities, delivery systems, business disruptions, damage to properties and infrastructures. Most of the fundamental infrastructures, such a power stations, hospitals, schools, farms, fuel tanks and towns located in Melanesian coastal and lower island regions. With the intensification in magnitude and frequency of cyclone events and sea-level rise, coastline zones are facing more amplified jeopardies of inundation, erosion, flooding and associated physical harms (Barnett, 2011). The environmental change also causes several challenges for transportation in Melanesia, including the closure of roads, airports, and bridges due to landslide and floods and destruction to port services. The resulting disruption of infrastructure would have direct impact on vital service and resource delivery in hospitals and health sectors. Service and infrastructure damages due to sea-level rise, flooding and cyclones have significant indirect impacts on water and sanitation (Barnett, 2011). Infrastructural economic cost depends on the scale of infrastructural developments and the intensity of hazards. In Vanuatu, infrastructure damage and associated costs for Port Vila under an extreme event scenario were projected to be approximately AU$640 million (Barnett, 2011). Climate change is found to have considerable damaging influences on social environment and well-being, effects which are mainly be felt by vulnerablepopulation. Indigenous communities especially the people of small islands will not only lose their lands, natural assets, and livelihoods but also their cultural and social identity due to climate change. They will become climate immigrants and will forcefully accept new and strange customs and practices (Campbell, 2014). Direct impacts of social environment change on health due to events like impaired place attachment, landscape modifications is psychological trauma. Psychological trauma is an immediate effect resulting from extreme climatic events and environmental changes. Events such asflooding and cyclonescan lead toanxietyand emotional stress. Temperature and sea-level rise caused social changes like migrations which can directly hamper mental well-being (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Indirect impacts relating to mental health are mo re gradual and cumulative. Extreme climatic events can impose indirect impacts through the immigration of indigenous communities due to stressors upon already inadequate resources. Common health disorders as an indirect effect due to these extreme weather events include depression,serious traumatic strain,complex grief,post-traumatic stress malady, sleep complications,anxiety, sexual dysfunction, and alcohol or drug abuse (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Description of the highest risks to the community The highest risks to the indigenous community of Melanesia arising from climate change related health impacts are decreasing in crop productivity, agricultural disturbance, and food scarcity. Increase in terrestrial temperature and change in precipitation patterns can damage food production. In Melanesia, crop productivity is estimated to decrease for even slight local temperature rise (1C-2C). A high number of indigenous people depends on fisheries and forest resources for food and income (Barnett, 2011). Sea-level upsurge, sea-surface temperature increase, and ocean acidification are destroying coral reef ecosystem and extinction of important fish species. Systematic evidence presented that, as a result of deficiency in adaptation strategies, high landmasses like Fiji could endure damages around USD 23-52 million for each year till 2050. Moreover, fisheries and aquaculture contribute significantly to the GDP and indigenous livelihood on Melanesian islands. Intense and frequent trop ical cyclones are adversely impacting inshore fisheries of these indigenous communities (Allen 2015). All this would increase the risk of hunger, exacerbate poverty with potentially large negative health effects in Melanesia (Barnett, 2011). Indigenous Melanesians are facing a high threat for their water resource damage by salt water intrusion in freshwater system. Freshwater resources in these islands are at risk because of their restricted small dimensions, availability, topography, and geology specifically in precipitation. With a 2C-4C surge in temperature, estimated economic damage aggregated up to 1 billion USD for damages of water resources. Drinking and agriculture water pressures formed by climatic changes will have dangerous impressions on poor indigenous communities who are reliant on their little water resources for survival (Allen 2015). With increased temperature and precipitation, Melanesian environment is becoming suitable for infectious, water-borne and vector-borne diseases. Warm, wet weather and climate change may work synergistically to increase disease burdens. Extreme events like landslides, tropical cyclones, and flooding create more promising breeding ground for pathogens and vectors (McMichael, 2013). Stronger cyclones mean stronger winds and these winds can carry vectors kilometers away, resulting in an introduction of new infections to the region that the land has never experienced before, making indigenous communities in that region even more susceptible. For instance, in Papua New Guinea highlands, malaria which was unfamiliar to the indigenous community has become a new hazard (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Description of four adaptation strategies for the community The Melanesian indigenous communities are coping with an unknown foe which threatens their very existence. Unfortunately, these indigenous people are ill prepared to tackle problem of climate change. Adaptation strategies for reducing the risk factors and their implementation is vital for well-being of indigenous Melanesian communities (McIver et al., 2015). The 4 main adaptation strategies for Melanesian indigenous communities are legislative, public education, infrastructural development and health intervention related adaptations. Legislative or regulatory adaptations are important for managing health issues related to food and water scarcity and reducing the risk of diseases. Risk assessment of possible effects of climate change must be integrated into food production policies and incorporation of climate change and health considerations into food production and monitoring activities are essential. Mechanisms must be incorporated in the regulatory system to supply food in remote communities. Regulatory boundaries on land-use and development in coastline areas can effectively reduce the agricultural damage and physical injuries during extreme events (Abel et al, 2011). Regulations are also needed for managing water scarcity (Barnett et al., 2013). Water conservation regulations, regulation for the use of grey-water, addition of climate change and health related reflections in vulnerability impact assessment are necessary adaptation strategies (IPCC, 2014). The indigenous people of Melanesia have very little knowledge about impacts of climate change. Public education and communication regarding nutritional standers of food are highly required. Education curriculums for primary producers on potential negative influences of climate change on agricultural and fishery practice is a vital adaptation measure (Gero, 2011). Raising awareness in these islands with respect to the imminent threats of sea-level growth and impacts of climatic alteration and intimidations in vulnerable areas is extremely needed (Barnett, 2013). Strengthening community resilience and health through community-based health programs, cross-departmental information sharing and task forces for managing impacts of climate changes on coastal indigenous communities must include in these adaptive strategies (Gero, 2011). Long-term strategic plans for infrastructure development for agriculture is needed in Melanesia. Appropriate land use can reduce the risk of food damage during flood and cyclone events. The introduction of modern infrastructures for producing own food, harvesting crops and seafood can help in adaptation. Assessment of water infrastructure with respect to amplified possibilities of extreme precipitation, cyclones and droughts are required. Infrastructural development is also necessary in the fields of climate forecasting to deliver timely warning to the population most likely to be affected, emergency management plans, climate resilient resources and sanitation practice (Field, 2012). Health interventions is another central adaptive strategy. Medical resource management and improved level of first-aid training of indigenous community members in vulnerable areas are crucial. To avoid the water-borne diseases during extreme events, appropriate medical interventions and Responses are also indispensable. Confirming access to treatment in remote and vulnerable communities and enhanced trainings on symptoms and treatment of disease must be incorporated (Hess, 2012). Description of sectors important for the vulnerability assessment The indigenous people of Melanesia are clearly vulnerable to the deleterious impacts of environmental changes. Many people in PNG and Vanuatu have already been migrated to other places due to sea-level rising and other climate change impacts. Workable programs and achievable action plans on the climate change impacts is imperative for the Melanesian islands. At the national level, Melanesian islands demand advanced suitable domestic policies and legal frameworks to deal with the impacts of climate change (Abel et al, 2011). Involvement of sectors like healthcare, legal, agriculture, research, education and communication are essential for vulnerability assessment of the Melanesian indigenous communities. These sectors and the local government together can provide a channel for indigenous communities to access much-required resources and other supports to accept adaptation actions to diminish the effects of climate change on their environment, property, and livelihoods (Barnett et al., 2013). According to Hess (2012), healthcare providers can improve the quality of life and life expectancy of these people by raising environmental awareness. These people need immediate actions by their governmental body at the domestic level and neighbour countries at the regional level not only to adopt management strategies but also to protect their lives and safeguard their future. Local climate change holistic policies and laws are also vital to protect indigenous people, their properties, economics and cultural identities (Abel et al, 2011). Participation of agricultural stakeholders in regional agricultural vulnerability assessment is vital for introducing alternate crops, drought resistant, pest resistant and sustainable crops (McIver et al., 2015). Scientists increasingly giving emphasis on engagement of agricultural stakeholders in order to develop more acceptable and applicable solutions for climate change impacts, adaptations and vulnerability assessments (Fellmann, 2012). Mittter et al. (2014), confirmed the utility of the outcomes to notify the public about local climate change impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability in agriculture. Involvement of educational professionals can raise awareness among the indigenous communities about coastal protection, water resource management, nature conservation and sustainable use and renewable energies. Information gathered through vulnerability assessment such as connection between climate change, temperature surge, extreme weather events, and rainfall changes on the cost and availability of locally grown foods can be delivered to indigenous communities with the help of awareness camps (Fellmann, 2012). Local communities can sometimes possess much vital information about changing climate which can be significant for vulnerability assessment, thus, effective communication with the indigenous people are required (Berrang-Ford, 2011). Implementation projects with local associates can illustrate the economic opportunities of innovative responses to climate change. According to McIver et al. (2015), effective vulnerability assessment can be done by improved communication ways bet ween the meteorology services, healthcare system, climate-based early warning systems and other stakeholders. Researchers can have important involvement in domestic valuations of vulnerability to extreme events, identification of vulnerable communities, improvement of early warning structures for tropical cyclones, extreme precipitation, and droughts. assessment of current vector and disease control methods, understanding of transmission dynamics including vector ecology and reservoir host, development of vaccines, natural control mechanisms of vectors, applied environmental epidemiological research focusing on climate-sensitive diseases, molecular tracing of water-borne pathogens etc. (IPCC, 2014). As stated by McIver et al. (2015), Gero (2011) and many other authors, coordination and data linkages between all these sectors, both public and private is essential for proper vulnerability assessment and implementation of adaptation strategies. References Abel, N., Gorddard, R., Harman, B., Leitch, A., Langridge, J., Ryan, A., Heyenga, S. (2011). Sea level rise, coastal development and planned retreat: analytical framework, governance principles and an Australian case study. Environmental Science Policy,14(3), 279-288. Allen, B., 2015. Will a major El Nio event disrupt village food production in Papua New Guinea in 2015.SSGM in Brief,39. Barnett, J. (2011). Dangerous climate change in the Pacific Islands: food production and food security.Regional Environmental Change,11(1), 229-237. Barnett, J., ONeill, S., Waller, S., Rogers, S. (2013). Reducing the risk of maladaptation in response to sea-level rise and urban water scarcity. Successful adaptation to climate change: linking science and policy in a rapidly changing world. New York: Routledge, 37-49. Barros, V. R., Field, C. B., Dokke, D. J., Mastrandrea, M. D., Mach, K. J., Bilir, T. E., Girma, B. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Bell, J. D., Johnson, J. E., Hobday, A. J. (Eds.). (2011).Vulnerability of tropical Pacific fisheries and aquaculture to climate change. SPC FAME Digital Library. Berrang-Ford, L., Ford, J. D., Paterson, J. (2011). Are we adapting to climate change?Global environmental change,21(1), 25-33. Blust, R. (2013).The Austronesian languages. Asia-Pacific Linguistics. Campbell, J. R. (2014). Climate-change migration in the Pacific.The contemporary pacific,26(1), 1-28. Ellison, J. C. (2015). Vulnerability assessment of mangroves to climate change and sea-level rise impacts.Wetlands Ecology and Management, 23(2), 115-137. Fellmann, T. (2012). The assessment of climate change-related vulnerability in the agricultural sector: reviewing conceptual frameworks.Building resilience for adaptation to climate change in the agriculture sector,23, 37. Field, C. B. (Ed.). (2012).Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press. Friedrich, T., Timmermann, A., Abe-Ouchi, A., Bates, N. R., Chikamoto, M. O., Church, M. J., Ilyina, T. (2012). Detecting regional anthropogenic trends in ocean acidification against natural variability.Nature Climate Change,2(3), 167-171. Fuchs, S., Kuhlicke, C., Meyer, V. (2011). Editorial for the special issue: vulnerability to natural hazardsthe challenge of integration.Natural Hazards,58(2), 609-619. Gero, A., Mheux, K., Dominey-Howes, D. (2011). Integrating community based disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation: examples from the Pacific.Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences,11(1), 101-113. Haimes, Y. Y. (2015).Risk modeling, assessment, and management. John Wiley Sons. Hess, J. J., McDowell, J. Z., Luber, G. (2012). Integrating climate change adaptation into public health practice: using adaptive management to increase adaptive capacity and build resilience.Environmental Health Perspectives,120(2), 171. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2014).Climate Change 2014Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Regional Aspects. Cambridge University Press. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. (2016).Ipcc.ch. Kingsford, R. T., Seabrook-Davison, M. N., Seabrook-Davison, J., Watson, J. E., Brunton, D. H. (2011). Climate Change in OceaniaA synthesis of biodiversity impacts and adaptations.Pacific Conservation Biology,17(3), 270-284. Lawson, S. (2013). Melanesia The History and Politics of an Idea.The Journal of Pacific History,48(1), 1-22. McColl, R. W. (2014).Encyclopedia of world geography(Vol. 1). Infobase Publishing. McIver, L., Kim, R., Woodward, A., Hales, S., Spickett, J., Katscherian, D., Naicker, J. (2015). Health impacts of climate change in Pacific island countries: a regional assessment of vulnerabilities and adaptation priorities.Environ Health Perspect. McMichael, A. J. (2013). Globalization, climate change, and human health. New England Journal of Medicine,368(14), 1335-1343. McMICHAEL, A. J., Lindgren, E. (2011). Climate change: present and future risks to health, and necessary responses.Journal of internal medicine,270(5), 401-413. Mitter, H., Kirchner, M., Schmid, E., Schnhart, M. (2014). The participation of agricultural stakeholders in assessing regional vulnerability of cropland to soil water erosion in Austria.Regional environmental change, 14(1), 385-400. Moret, W. (2014). Vulnerability Assessment Methodologies: A Review of the Literature. Taylor, S., Kumar, L. (2016). Global climate change impacts on pacific islands terrestrial biodiversity: a review.Trop Conserv Sci,9, 203-223. Viles, H., Spencer, T. (2014).Coastal problems: geomorphology, ecology and society at the coast. Routledge. Ward, G. (2013). Prehistoric settlement and economy in a tropical small island environment: the Banks Islands, insular Melanesia.

This Side Of Paradise Essays - Modernist Literature

This Side Of Paradise This Side of Paradise chronicles the life of Amory Blaine from his childhood up through his early twenties. Born the son of a wealthy and sophisticated woman, Beatrice, Amory travels the country with his mother until he attends the fictitious St. Regis prep school in New England. He is handsome, quite intelligent though lazy in his schoolwork, and he earns admission to Princeton. Though initially concerned with being a success on campus, after failing a class he gives himself over to idleness; he prefers to learn through reading and discussions with friends than through his classes. Towards the end of his college career, America enters World War I and Amory dutifully enlists, forgoing his degree. During his time overseas, Beatrice passes away. Upon his return to America, Amory meets the young debutante Rosalind Connage, the sister of his college friend Alec. The two fall deeply in love, but because of his family's poor investments, Amory has little money, and Rosalind does not wish to marry into poverty. Despite Amory's best efforts to earn money at an advertising agency, Rosalind breaks off their engagement in order to marry a wealthier man, devastating Amory. He goes on a three week drinking binge, which is finally terminated by the advent of the Prohibition. Amory's quest for self-knowledge begins to be realized. He has a short summer romance with the wild Eleanor. Soon after, Alec is caught with a girl in his hotel room and Amory takes the blame. Amory then discovers that his last close tie, the dear friend of his mother and his father figure, Monsignor Darcy, has passed away. Further, the family finances have left him almost no money. He decides to walk to Princeton and is picked up along the way by the wealthy father of a friend who died in the war. Amory expounds his new socialist principles and then continues to walk to Princeton. He arrives late at night, pining for Rosalind. Amory reaches his hands to the sky and says "I know myself, but that is all"

Affordable papers Essays

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Historical Background that Led to the Eighth Amendment Coursework

Historical Background that Led to the Eighth Amendment - Coursework Example It later became a theme of the U.S. Supreme Court Eighth Amendment discussion about normal penalties collectively forced in an undue and unprecedented way. Why the Eighth Amendment Has Not Been Fully Incorporated The Eighth Amendment has not been fully incorporated since it was only applied as a clause to the states when a suitable case challenging the state's contravention of that clause is formally requested for review. Moreover, the Supreme Court makes use of the principle of selective incorporation when it comes to applying the Bill of Rights to the given states (Harr, Hess and Orthman 420). What was considered initially was the cruelty when it comes to method of punishment, and not the ban of excessive punishments. The reason being that it is hard to ascertain the level at which the court can be able to tell between the permissible from that considered as cruel or unusual, bearing in mind that the Bill of Rights is a pronouncement of universal principles aimed at presiding over the social order of freemen (Harr, Hess and Orthman 397). ... Secondly, the appellate court may possibly not be able to handle disputes to bail quicker than trial courts are able to hear the case, and as a result this renders it moot or hard for trial prior to review (Harr, Hess and Orthman 400). How Bail Can Be Assured For Those Accused of Crimes The right to bail can be assumed through case law and statutory law. Hence, the Bail Reform Act of 1984 provides the judicial authority to comprise definite conditions for granting bail based on community safety or otherwise the risk of the individual not appearing for trial (Harr, Hess and Orthman 398). This is in view of the fact that the pretrial detention should not violate due process or the eight amendment. For this reason, when the only asserted interest is to warrant that the accused will stand trial and give in to sentence when found guilty, then in that case bail should be handed by the court at an amount designed to make certain that objective and no more. Notably, the legislature rather th an the constitution is the actual framer of bail law. The Federal law defines that every noncapital offenses is bailable, but in capital offenses the decision to hold a suspect prior to a trial is left up to the judge (Harr, Hess and Orthman 400). The state courts assure bails for those accused of crime based on the excessive bail provisions within the state constitution or else through legislation and case law, however, the constitution only bars excessive bail (Harr, Hess and Orthman 401). Basic Need for Bail Bail seeks to serve two needs. Firstly, bail seeks to uphold the presumption of innocence by permitting the person not yet convicted to avoid continued incarceration. Secondly, bail seeks to

Why did the Cold War not escalate into full-scale war between the USA Essay

Why did the Cold War not escalate into full-scale war between the USA and the USSR - Essay Example Even though there was no face to face conflicts these two blocks engaged in secret and indirect conflicts between each other. This was known to be the cold war. It continued till 1990’s when the Soviet Union broke up under the influence of perestroika and glasnost. To be precise, the cold war started in 1917 immediately after the Bolshevik revolution and ended in 1989 after the break up of USSR. It was a conflict between Bolshevism and democracy. The cold war is regarded as the most important political and diplomatical issue of the twentieth century. It got its name because both parties were afraid of fighting each other directly. Instead they fought the war indirectly. They played havoc in different parts of the world as well as fought with words on issues. Threatening and denouncement were common. Moreover they raced to make each other look foolish. The term cold war was used first by Mr. Bernard Baruch who was a senior advisor for the 33rd president of the US, Mr. Harry Tru man. He used this term because of the frequently occurring crisis between the two sides even though they fought side by side against Nazi Germany. The actual cause of the cold war was the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917. ... This prompted Russia to behave negatively against west. Russians though that the west was interested in toppling their communist regime and used all its strength to defend and shun them. Even though the US recognized USSR in 1933, suspicion between the two countries continued on a high note. This continued in the Second World War where both the countries were allies. The cold war is considered as decade’s long struggle for world supremacy. It began escalating during 1945 when relations between Washington and Moscow started deteriorating. The deterioration ignited the cold war as well as set a stage for the dynamic struggle between the east and the west. Even though political leaders changed in both sides, the cold war continued. In another sense, the cold war was more political rather than military (Cold war. 2011). One of the main reasons why the cold war did not escalate into a full fledged war was because both sides knew that if the war was started, it could easily be a nuc lear war causing destruction to the whole world (Why the cold war did never escalated. 2011). During the cold war, many times there was concern that this would escalate into a full war with nuclear arsenal used by both sides and killing millions. However both the sides developed a deterrence policy that further prevented problems from escalating beyond localities. Often periods of escalations and crisis appeared during the cold war days. That was in 1953, when Josef Stalin’s sudden death caused a leadership gap in Moscow. During this time in US there was American presidential election. This crisis continued till the most famous Cuban missile crisis of 1962. Other critical events during the cold war include the Hungarian

Overview of HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Overview of HRM - Essay Example As this research shall argue, however, contrary to the popular assumption that compensation schemes are the primary method for doing so, it is the collectivity of HR functions which impinge upon, and have the potential to transform the mentioned culture. In other words, while one cannot deny the fundamental role which compensation plays in affecting employee motivation levels, enhancing organisational commitment and, ultimately, transforming the dominant organisational culture, it would be fallacious and, consequently, indefensible to ignore a host of other HRM practices which, taken as a collectivity, effectively modify organisational culture and increase employees' commitment. This section introduces several perspectives of HRM in both the U.S. society and the Western European society. In the management research literature in the United States of America, scholars are more concerned about the functions and roles played by HRM. The function of HRM has experienced an evolutionary process in business organisations. It used to be reactive, operational, and domestic. It was 'personnel management'. After 1990s, human capital has become more and more important due to the emergence of the new economy. Both researchers and practitioners have realized the strategic role played by HRM. The resource-based theory (Barney, 2001) looks within the firm itself. This suggests human assets are one of the major sources bringing about core competence for the business organisations; HRM thus becomes an important issue. Huselid (1995; 1998) propose High Performance Work Practices (HPWP), Pfeiffer (1994) propose the best practice models. From American literature on HRM, one can see the strong inclination of universalism, the optimism on human potential development. The European scholars, however, are more concerned about the contextual factors shaping the HRM practices of companies. According to Brewster (1996), the societal culture, ownership structures, government attitude to foreign investment, the roles of union are major factors determining HRM policies and practices in context-specific situations. Such perspective helps to understand the unique situations and differences between nations in their HRM practices as well as how MNCs try to adapt to local practices. In international business literature, Evans, Tayeb (2001) argue that human resource management makes contribution to organisational performance by playing three roles. The basic role is building the foundations of attracting, motivating and retaining people in place. The second role is realigning it to the environmental change and reconfiguring the different elements as time evolves. As the competition becomes fierce and

Nano Science and Nano Technology Comparison

Nano Science and Nano Technology Comparison Whenever the topic nano technology comes up most of us dont have a clear idea of what it is. Especially when it is about the difference between nano science and nano technology. Then what is nano science? Nanoscience is the study of objects with size less than hundred nanometers at least in one dimension. When objects go to nanometer scale in size, their behavior get changed applied laws may not be the same as when they were larger in size. Nanoscience involves finding governing laws of these tiny objects, deriving theoretical models to describe the behavior of those nanoscale materials and analyzing the properties of them. So, what is Nano technology? Nanotechnology is engineering the nanoscale objects at molecular level using different techniques. Nanotechnology is all about techniques and tools to come up with a nanoscale design or system that exploit the properties at molecular level to be more accurate and efficient. Using the knowledge on material behaviour at nanoscale which is got from nanoscience, nanotechnology focuses on properties such as strength, lightness, electrical and thermal conductance and reactivity to design and manufacture useful items. How did all start? The emergence of nanotechnology in the 1980s was caused by the convergence of experimental advances such as the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 and the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, with the elucidation and popularization of a conceptual framework for the goals of nanotechnology beginning with the 1986 publication of the book Engines of Creation. The conceptual origin The American physicist Richard Feynman lectured, Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom, at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959, which is often held to have provided inspiration for the field of nanotechnology. Feynman had described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and Van der Waals attraction would become more important. The Japanese scientist called Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo University of Science was the first to use the term nano-technology in a 1974 conference,[11] to describe semiconductor processes such as thin film deposition and ion beam milling exhibiting characteristic control on the order of a nanometer. His definition was, Nano-technology mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule. However, the term was not used again until 1981 when Eric Drexler, who was unaware of Taniguchis prior use of the term, published his first paper on nanotechnology in 1981. In the 1980s the idea of nanotechnology as a deterministic, rather than stochastic, handling of individual atoms and molecules was conceptually explored in depth by K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and two influential books. In 1980, Drexler encountered Feynmans provocative 1959 talk Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom while preparing his initial scientific paper on the subject, Molecular Engineering: An approach to the development of general capabilities for molecular manipulation, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 1981.[1] The term nanotechnology (which paralleled Taniguchis nano-technology) was independently applied by Drexler in his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, which proposed the idea of a nanoscale assembler which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity. He also first published the term grey goo to describe what might happen if a hypothetical self-replicating machine, capable of independent operation, were constructed and released. Definition Nanotechnology is a multi-disciplinary engineering field, which draws from and benefits areas such as materials science and engineering, chemistry, physics, biology, and medicine Nano-engineered materials, addresses the synthesis, characterization and engineering application of several classes of advanced materials, including nanocrystalline materials and nanopowders used in electronics and photonics applications, as catalysts in automobiles, in the food and pharmaceutical industries, as membranes for fuel cells, and for industrial-scale polymers. The design, synthesis, characterization, application and fundamental studies of new crystalline metal oxide nano-materials that may be used for next-generation rechargeable batteries. Nano-engineering of polymer electrolyte membranes. Hydrogen fuel cells use these membranes to combine hydrogen and oxygen and produce energy. Development of nano-particles as powerful catalysts for petrochemical refinery applications. Basic and applied research in photonic and photonic band gap crystals for optical and microwave communications. Design, synthesis, fundamental understanding and processing of polymer nano-composites, which are used in several applications for the automotive, aerospace, electronic components and packaging industries. Nano-electronics, addresses the development of systems and materials that will enable the electronics industry to overcome current technological limits. Also part of this theme area is a new generation of electronics based on plastics, which is expected to create new markets with applications ranging from smart cards to tube-like computers. Experimentation in electron beam lithography, to fabricate nanostructures and nanoelectronic devices, and to determine how the arrangement of molecules affects the chemical properties of substances. Fundamental studies and development of nanocrystalline thin-film semiconductors, devices and circuits for electronics and spintronics. Development and fabrication of Micro- and Nano-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS/NEMS). New devices being researched include NEMS-based metamaterials, miniature signal processing devices, biomedical, diagnostic and image processing devices, tiny wireless components (filters, mixers, antennas), miniature opto-electromechanical devices (optical relays, optical multiplexers, deformable optics), miniature biosensors and environmental sensors, and micro- and nano-fluidics devices. Organic synthesis, characterization and application of molecular organic semiconductor materials for electronic/optoelectronic devices. These materials are uniquely positioned to allow low cost fabrication processes (e.g., printable electronics) and to enable novel applications, such as, flexible- and molecular-electronics. Nano-biosystems, addresses the molecular manipulation of biomaterials and the engineering of nanoscale systems and processes of biological and medicinal interest, such as, for example, the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents and the design of DNA, peptide, protein, and cell chips. Interfacing nano-chips to bio-molecules. Creation of nano-vehicles that mimic the way viruses interact with specific cells. This will facilitate the delivery of drugs directly to targeted cells, and could, for instance, eliminate the toxic side-effects of chemotherapy by directing the therapeutic agents to cancer cells only. Development of nanotechnology methods for therapeutic applications, for example, for replacing faulty DNA or RNA strands with corrected strands. Development of nano-techniques for inactivation of microbes: an efficient and cheap method of food sterilization. Nano-instruments addresses some of the most far-reaching yet practical applications of miniature instruments for measuring atoms or molecules in chemical, clinical, or biochemical analysis; in biotechnology for agent detection; and environmental analysis. Lab-on-chip and micro-nano fluidic devices for biodiagnostics and protein sequencing. Fundamental studies leading to development of theories behind measurements at the nano-scale. Fabrication of instrumentation and development of methodology for micro- and nano-analytical chemistry for measurements of pollutants on-site. Using micro as an interface between the nano-scale and the macroscopic, human-scale. Development and characterization of mobile micro- and nano- instruments that are small, cheap and under wireless control. Measurement of how nano-materials grow and form on surfaces. Studies of polymer interfaces, adhesion and confinement of polymer chains glass transition in confined geometries. What do we have so far? scientists at the Department of Energys Oak Ridge National Laboratory have developed a catalyst made of carbon, copper and nitrogen and applied voltage to trigger a complicated chemical reaction that essentially reverses the combustion process. With the help of the nanotechnology-based catalyst which contains multiple reaction sites, the solution of carbon dioxide dissolved in water turned into ethanol with a yield of 63 percent. Typically, this type of electrochemical reaction results in a mix of several different products in small amounts. How it started The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade later, in his explorations of ultraprecision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology. It wasnt until 1981, with the development of the scanning tunneling microscope that could see individual atoms, that modern nanotechnology began. Once scientists had the right tools, such as the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM), the age of nanotechnology was born. Although modern nanoscience and nanotechnology are quite new, nanoscale materials were used for centuries. Alternate-sized gold and silver particles created colors in the stained glass windows of medieval churches hundreds of years ago. The artists back then just didnt know that the process they used to create these beautiful works of art actually led to changes in the composition of the materials they were working with. Todays scientists and engineers are finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials at the nanoscale to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter weight, increased control of light spectrum, and greater chemical reactivity than their larger-scale counterparts. Manufacturing at the nanoscale is known as nanomanufacturing. Nanomanufacturing involves scaled-up, reliable, and cost-effective manufacturing of nanoscale materials, structures, devices, and systems. It also includes research, development, and integration of top-down processes and increasingly complex bottom-up or self-assembly processes. A product of nanomanufacturing: A 16 gauge wire (above), approximately 1.3 millimeters in diameter, made from carbon nanotubes that were spun into thread. And the same wire on a 150 ply spool (below.) Courtesy of Nanocomp. In more simple terms, nanomanufacturing leads to the production of improved materials and new products. As mentioned above, there are two basic approaches to nanomanufacturing, either top-down or bottom-up. Top-down fabrication reduces large pieces of materials all the way down to the nanoscale, like someone carving a model airplane out of a block of wood. This approach requires larger amounts of materials and can lead to waste if excess material is discarded. The bottom-up approach to nanomanufacturing creates products by building them up from atomic- and molecular-scale components, which can be time-consuming. Scientists are exploring the concept of placing certain molecular-scale components together that will spontaneously self-assemble, from the bottom up into ordered structures. Within the top-down and bottom-up categories of nanomanufacturing, there are a growing number of new processes that enable nanomanufacturing. Among these are: Chemical vapor deposition is a process in which chemicals react to produce very pure, high-performance films Molecular beam epitaxy is one method for depositing highly controlled thin films Atomic layer epitaxy is a process for depositing one-atom-thick layers on a surface Dip pen lithography is a process in which the tip of an atomic force microscope is dipped into a chemical fluid and then used to write on a surface, like an old fashioned ink pen onto paper Nanoimprint lithography is a process for creating nanoscale features by stamping or printing them onto a surface Roll-to-roll processing is a high-volume process to produce nanoscale devices on a roll of ultrathin plastic or metal Self-assembly describes the process in which a group of components come together to form an ordered structure without outside direction Structures and properties of materials can be improved through these nanomanufacturing processes. Such nanomaterials can be stronger, lighter, more durable, water-repellent, anti-reflective, self-cleaning, ultraviolet- or infrared-resistant, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-resistant, or electrically conductive, among other traits. Taking advantage of these properties, todays nanotechnology-enabled products range from baseball bats and tennis rackets to catalysts for refining crude oil and ultrasensitive detection and identification of biological and chemical toxins. A high resolution image of a graphene transistor with a sheet of carbon only one atom thick. This high speed electronic device was createdÂÂ   using nanoscale processes, and may one day be used for better computerÂÂ   hips. (Courtesy of James Yardley, Columbia University Nanocenter, an NNI-sponsored NSEC) Nanoscale transistors may someday lead to computers that are faster, more powerful, and more energy efficient than those used today. Nanotechnology also holds the potential to exponentially increase information storage capacity; soon your computers entire memory will be able to be stored on a single tiny chip. In the energy arena, nanotechnology will enable high-efficiency, low-cost batteries and solar cells. For more products and applications that use nanotechnology, see Benefits Applications or browse our database of the NNIs Major Achievements in Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology RD, and the eventual nanomanufacturing of products, requires advanced and often very expensive equipment and facilities. In order to realize the potential of nanotechnology, NNI agencies are investing heavily in nanomanufacturing RD and infrastructure. Over 90 NNI-funded centers and user facilities across the country provide researchers the facilities, equipment, and trained staff to develop nanotechnology applications and associated manufacturing processes. The NNI helps drive the nanomanufacturing field by providing researchers and small businesses with access to this specialized equipment in order to maintain global U.S. competitiveness. To assist in agency coordination in the area of nanomanufacturing, the Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology (NSET) Subcommittee created the Nanotechnology Innovation and Commercialization Ecosystem (NICE) Working Group. The Presidents FY 2017 Budget provides $1.4 billion for the National Nanotechnology Initiative, including an estimated $37 million for nanomanufacturing. The National Nanomanufacturing Network (NNN) is an alliance of academic, government and industry partners that cooperate to advance nanomanufacturing strength in the U.S. The NNI and its member agencies actively participate in, support, and contribute to the NNN in its mission to advance nanomanufacturing. The NNN functions as part electronic resource, part community of practice, and part network of experts working on the development of nanomanufacturing. The NNN fosters technology transition and exchange through a host of activities including reviews and archiving of emerging materials, processes, and areas of practice, strategic workshops and roadmap development. InterNano is the information arm of the NNN-a digital library resource of timely information on nanomanufacturing and a platform for collaboration, providing information archiving in areas of processes and tools, standards, reports, events, and environmental health and safety databases. A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM ZÃ ¼rich), the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.[1][2] For a STM, good resolution is considered to be 0.1 nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm (10 pm) depth resolution.[3] With this resolution, individual atoms within materials are routinely imaged and manipulated. The STM can be used not only in ultra-high vacuum but also in air, water, and various other liquid or gas ambients, and at temperatures ranging from near zero kelvin to over 1000ÂÂ °C.[4][5]Â   Â   STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. When a conducting tip is brought very near to the surface to be examined, a bias (voltage difference) applied between the two can allow electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them. The resulting tunneling current is a function of tip position, applied voltage, and the local density of states (LDOS) of the sample.[4]Information is acquired by monitoring the current as the tips position scans across the surface, and is usually displayed in image form. STM can be a challenging technique, as it requires extremely clean and stable surfaces, sharp tips, excellent vibration control, and sophisticated electronics, but nonetheless many hobbyists have built their own. Atomic-force microscopy (AFM) or scanning-force microscopy (SFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit. The information is gathered by feeling or touching the surface with a mechanical probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but accurate and precise movements on (electronic) command enable very precise scanning. The AFM has three major abilities: force measurement, imaging, and manipulation.